GERMAN
ENLIGHTENMENT
85
Christian Wolff
Vernünfftige Gedancken von
dem Gebrauche der Theile in
Menschen, Thieren und Pflantzen,
den Liebhabern der Wahrheit
Frankfurt and Leipzig: Renger, 1730
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The eighteenth-century substitution of a new faith in
reason, "science," and the future for that of revealed
religion was facilitated by the establishment of new systems of
logical analysis. When philosophers such as Christian Wolff
(1679-1754) changed systems of formal logic into metaphysics, they
challenged the very basis of religious authority and invoked
vigorous responses. In 1706, Wolff, a follower of Leibniz, was
appointed professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at the
University of Halle, then a center of Pietism. Wolff soon
antagonized many colleagues by insisting that religious truths be
grounded in mathematical certitude. Following years of harassment
by his opponents, Wolff was ordered out of Prussia by Frederick
William I and, in 1731, left for Saxony and a later post at
Marburg. Among Wolff's most important writings was
Vernünfftige Gedancken von dem Gebrauche der Theile
(1724), a work on physiology which reflects his comprehensive view
of philosophy as embracing all fields of knowledge.
86
Christian August Crusius
Weg zur Gewissheit
und Zuverlässigkeit
der menschlichen Erkenntnis
Leipzig: Johann Friedrich Gleditsch, 1747
Integral to the philosophies of Leibniz and Wolff was a
deterministic concept of the individual and the world which
challenged traditional theological viewpoints. Among those
responding to these philosophies was the theologian Christian
August Crusius (1715-1775. In Weg zur Gewissheit und
Zuverlässigkeit, one of Crusius' major works, he attacked
Leibniz and Wolff on the basis of the moral evils which he feared
would result from their systems of determinism. Crusius was above
all concerned with the implications of those systems relating to
the freedom of the will. His criticisms of Wolff in particular had
much influence upon the young Kant who, in his Kritik der
praktischen Vernunft, refers to Crusius' ethical doctrines
with respect.
87
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi
Ueber die Lehre des
Spinoza in Briefen an den
Herrn Moses Mendelssohn
Breslau: Gottlieb Löwe, 1785
In this first edition of the work which brought him into
prominence as a philosopher, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743
1819) criticized the system of Baruch Spinoza (1622-1677) for its
suspected atheism. Jacobi also believed that the philosophies of
Spinoza, Leibniz, and Wolff; being deterministic systems of
metaphysics, fell prey to fatalism. Because he insisted on the
importance of faith as a unifying force in philosophy, Jacobi was
attacked by Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) and other thinkers in
Berlin for his attempts to reintroduce the antiquated concept of
unreasoning belief. Among the charges levelled at Jacobi were that
he was an enemy of reason, a Pietist, and worst of all
a Jesuit in disguise.
88
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
Nathan der Weise
Berlin: Christian Friederich Voss and Son, 1779
Among the most influential works of the celebrated dramatist,
critic, and philosopher Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729 1781)
was Nathan der Weise (1779), a finely crafted play whose
theme of religious tolerance was grounded firmly in contemporary
rationalism. Lessing embodied his arguments for toleration in the
famous parable of the three rings narrated by Nathan, the wise Jew.
The story of the three sons representing Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam who are potential holders of a
magical ring, suggests that the absolute truth of any religious
faith cannot be proven on historical grounds, and that the search
for truth takes precedence over the possession of truth. Nathan
der Weise thus argues for a nondogmatic view of religion,
based on a shared humanity above the accidents of race and
creed.
89
Moses Mendelssohn
Schreiben an den
Herrn Diaconus Lavater zu Zürich
Berlin and Leipzig, 1770
The inspiration for the character Nathan the Wise may have been
provided by Lessing's good friend, the renowned Jewish philosopher
Moses Mendelssohn. One of the foremost figures of the eighteenth
century, Mendelssohn drew acclaim as the "German Plato" for his
discussion of the immortality of the soul in Phädon
(1767). The Phädon led to a dispute with the Swiss
theologian Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741 1801) concerning
certain proofs of Christian dogma proposed by the Swiss philosopher
Charles Bonnet (1720 1793). In his quest to convert
Mendelssohn, Lavater challenged the Jewish philosopher to refute
Bonnet's proofs and to defend his own tradition and faith. In
response, Mendelssohn composed his Schreiben an den Herrn
Diaconus Lavater, in which he eloquently related his
philosophical views to his religious beliefs. Lavater's challenge
served to strengthen Mendelssohn's commitment to Judaism, and he
dedicated the remainder of his life to the emancipation of the
Jews.
90
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Positiones juris
Strassburg: Johann Heinrich Heitz, [1771]
In his early days as a student at the University of Leipzig, the
great poet, dramatist, and philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
(1749 1832) spent most of his time composing poetry and
studying literature. In 1768 Goethe was stricken by a severe
illness, forcing the termination of his studies at Leipzig and the
return to his home in Frankfurt. After a long period of
convalescence, Goethe was sent by his father to earn a degree in
law at the University of Strassburg. Goethe would have preferred to
resume his literary studies but agreed to his father's request,
studying at Strassburg from 1770 1771. On August 6 of 1771,
Goethe was awarded his degree following the successful defense of
Positiones juris, a twelve-page dissertation containing
fifty-six maxims on the nature and function of law. Goethe soon
returned home to begin a career as an advocate but instead became a
leader in the literary revolt then brewing against the principles
of the Enlightenment.
91
Johann Gottfried von Herder
Zwei Preisschriften
Berlin: Christian Friedrich Voss and Son, 1789
Goethe had put into practice many of the ideas of the philosopher and literary critic Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744 1803). Herder was a pioneer of the Sturm und Drang and a critic who changed the literary tastes of a generation. Contained in Zwei Preisschriften is "Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache" (1772), Herder's important essay on the origin of language which helped establish the foundations for the comparative study of philology, religion, and mythology. Herder argued that primitive language was an imitation in sound and imagery of natural phenomena, resulting in the personification of nature and constituting a living mythology. In contrast to the Enlightenment, he ascribed a positive role to religion in human history and praised the simplicity and spontaneity of primitive times against the complexity and rigidity of the modern world.
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